Compact, low power, high resolution ADC per pixel for large area pixel detectors

ABSTRACT

A compact ADC circuit can include one or more comparators, and a serial DAC (Digital-to-Analog) circuit that provides a signal to the comparator (or comparators). In addition, the ADC circuit can include a serial DAC redistribution sequencer that can provide a plurality of signals as input to the serial DAC circuit and is subject to a redistribution cycle and which receives as input a signal from a data multiplexer whose input connects electronically to an output of the comparator. The circuit can further include an ADC code register that provides an ADC output that connects electronically to the output of the comparator and the input to the data multiplexer. Shared logic circuitry for sharing common logic between pixels can be included, wherein the shared logic circuitry connects electronically to the data multiplexer and the ADC code register, wherein the shared logic circuitry promotes area and power savings for the pixel detector circuit.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENT APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation of nonprovisional patentapplication Ser. No. 16/557,262 titled “COMPACT, LOW POWER, HIGHRESOLUTION ADC PER PIXEL FOR LARGE AREA PIXEL DETECTORS” filed Aug. 30,2019. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/557,262 is herein incorporatedby reference in its entirety.

U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/557,262 claims the priority andbenefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationSer. No. 62/726,422 filed Sep. 3, 2018, entitled “COMPACT, LOW POWER,HIGH RESOLUTION ADC PER PIXEL FOR LARGE AREA PIXEL DETECTORS.” U.S.Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/726,422 is hereinincorporated by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

The invention disclosed in this application was made with U.S.Government support under the Fermi Research Alliance, LLC, ContractNumber DE-ACO2-07CH11359 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. TheU.S. Government has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

Embodiments are generally related to the field of integrated circuits.Embodiments further relate to the field of pixel detectors. Embodimentsalso relate to the field of large area pixel detectors and ADC(Analog-to-Digital Converter) and DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter)circuits. Embodiments further relate to the field of semiconductorradiation detectors and to hybrid pixel sensors or detectors.

BACKGROUND

A pixel detector, also referred to as a pixel sensor, is a type of imagedetector or image sensor, wherein each picture element (“pixel”) has aphotodetector and an amplifier. Many different type of integratedcircuit pixel detectors have been implemented, including the APS(Active-Pixel Sensor) such as the CMOS (ComplementaryMetal-Oxide-Semiconductor) APS used cell phone cameras, web cameras,digital pocket cameras and digital single-lens reflex cameras. Suchimage sensors can be produced using CMOS technology and has emerged asan alternative to CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) image sensors.

Another type of pixel detector is a hybrid pixel detector. Such devicesare usually configured from semiconductor wafers, most frequently highresistivity silicon, in which are implanted by ion reactor processing orthin film deposit tiny (micrometers) structures, each of them acting asa single element of a detector. When radiation impinges into suchdetectors, electron-hole pairs are generated and, if adequate electricfield is created in the structure, they drift and are collected to thepixels. The corresponding electrical current induced by the chargemovement is transferred to an external electronic microchip circuit.Such a system is referred to as a “hybrid pixel detector”.

Pixel detectors find particularly applications in the field of radiationdetection. Current digital imaging devices for energetic particledetection, also called pixel detectors, can be classified into two broadclasses, distinguished by the way in which impacting energy is convertedinto electrical signals. Taking X-ray photons as an example, in thefirst one of these classes the conversion happens indirectly in thesense that X-ray photons are first down-converted in energy to visiblephotons in a scintillation layer. The visible photons are subsequentlydetected by an array of photodiodes, in which the optical generation ofelectron-hole pairs gives rise to electrical signals which are thenfurther processed by a readout electronics and represented as an imageon a computer screen. The two-stage conversion process of indirect X-rayimaging devices suffers from the drawback of limited conversionefficiency and spatial resolution because of losses and scatteringoccurring both during the conversion of X-rays into visible photons andin the detection of those. Typically about 25 electron-hole pairs arefinally measured by the readout electronics per keV of incident X-rayenergy.

In the second class of these pixel detectors semiconductor absorberspermit the direct conversion of X-rays into electron-hole pairs, whichcan then be measured as an electrical signal by readout electronics. Inaddition to superior sensitivity and higher spatial and temporalresolution compared to scintillator based indirect conversion, suchabsorbers offer also spectral resolution, since the energy of anincident X-ray photon is proportional to the number of generatedelectron-hole pairs and thus measurable by a pulse height analysis.

BRIEF SUMMARY

The following summary is provided to facilitate an understanding of someof the innovative features unique to the disclosed embodiments and isnot intended to be a full description. A full appreciation of thevarious aspects of the embodiments disclosed herein can be gained bytaking the entire specification, claims, drawings, and abstract as awhole.

It is, therefore, one aspect of the disclosed embodiments to provide foran improved pixel detector circuit.

It is another aspect of the disclosed embodiments to provide for acompact, low power, high resolution ADC per pixel for large area pixeldetectors.

The aforementioned aspects and other objectives and advantages can nowbe achieved as described herein. In an embodiment, a circuit can beimplemented which can include at least one unity-gain buffer having azero input capacitance; a comparator having a constant offset invariantof signal and common mode, wherein the at least one unity-gain buffer iselectrically connected to the comparator; and a capacitor trimmingcircuit that is electrically connected to the comparator via the atleast one unity-gain buffer.

In an embodiment of the circuit, the at least one unity-gain buffer cancomprise a high-performance follower.

In an embodiment of the circuit, the comparator can comprise ahigh-gain, wide common mode range comparator with an input signal rangeequivalent to a full swing of nominal supply voltage.

In an embodiment of the circuit, the capacitor trimming circuit canfacilitate sub-fF capacitor trimming suitable for a reduced chip areaoccupancy. In another embodiment, the sub-fF capacitor trimming can befacilitated by electronic bootstrapping an electrode of a capacitor viathe at least one unity-gain buffer. In yet another embodiment, thesub-fF capacitor trimming can be facilitated by connecting an electrodeof a capacitor to a constant voltage source.

In another embodiment, a circuit can include at least onehigh-performance follower that combines at least onehigh-voltage-threshold transistor and at least one low-voltage-thresholdtransistor with surrounding circuitry to achieve a unity gain, zeroinput capacitance, and a wide input signal range equal to a full swingof a nominal supply voltage.

In an embodiment, the circuit can include a high-performance comparatorthat uses the at least one high-performance follower and the at leastone high-voltage-threshold transistor and the at least onelow-voltage-threshold transistor to achieve a comparator with a highgain, zero input capacitance, wide input signal range equal to a fullswing of the nominal supply voltage, and an invariant input offset overa complete dynamic range.

In an embodiment, the circuit can include a capacitance trimming circuitthat uses the at least one high-performance follower and an electronicbootstrapping to achieve a sub-fF capacitance trimming.

In another embodiment, a circuit can include at least onehigh-performance follower that combines at least onehigh-voltage-threshold transistor and at least one low-voltage-thresholdtransistor with surrounding circuitry to achieve a unity gain, zeroinput capacitance, and a wide input signal range equal to a full swingof a nominal supply voltage; a high-performance comparator that uses theat least one high-performance follower and the at least onehigh-voltage-threshold transistor and the at least onelow-voltage-threshold transistor to achieve a comparator with a highgain, zero input capacitance, wide input signal range equal to a fullswing of the nominal supply voltage, and an invariant input offset overa complete dynamic range; and a capacitance trimming circuit that usesthe at least one high-performance follower and an electronicbootstrapping to achieve a sub-fF capacitance trimming.

The circuit can also include shared logic circuitry for sharing commonlogic between pixels, wherein the shared logic circuitry promotes areasavings and power savings. The capacitance trimming circuit can beelectrically connected to the high-performance comparator via the atleast one at least one high-performance follower.

In another embodiment, a pixel detector circuit and a method of use aredisclosed herein. The pixel detector circuit can include one or morecomparators, along with a serial DAC (Digital-to-Analog) circuit thatprovides a signal to the comparator (or comparators). In addition, suchthe pixel detector circuit can be configured to include a serial DACredistribution sequencer that is driven by a data multiplexer, providinga plurality of signals as input to the serial DAC circuit, and theserial DAC circuit is subject to a redistribution cycle. Theredistribution sequencer receives as input a signal from a datamultiplexer whose input connects electronically to the ADC coderegister. The circuit is further configured to include an ADC coderegister that provides an ADC output that connects electronically to theoutput of the comparator and the input to the data multiplexer. A methodfor sharing part of the logic that drives pixels is included, whereinthe shared logic circuitry connects electronically to the datamultiplexer and the ADC code register, wherein the shared logiccircuitry promotes area and power savings for the pixel detectorcircuit.

In some embodiments, the shared logic circuitry can be configured toinclude a DAC conversion number register and a DAC input bit selectregister that perform timing and control functions, wherein the DACconversion number register and the DAC input bit select register areshared among a group of multiple ADCs resulting in the area and thepower savings. The DAC conversion number register is reusable for DACcontrol by enabling stored bits from the ADC code register using atleast one tri-state buffer in the data multiplexer, and the DAC inputbit select register is also reusable.

The disclosed ADC concept can also be used in applications other thanpixel detectors. That is, the disclosed ADC concept can be implementedin the context of a compact ADC, which fits in a small footprint.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The accompanying figures, in which like reference numerals refer toidentical or functionally-similar elements throughout the separate viewsand which are incorporated in and form a part of the specification,further illustrate the present invention and, together with the detaileddescription of the invention, serve to explain the principles of thepresent invention.

FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram depicting an analog pixel circuit, inaccordance with an embodiment;

FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting serial DAC(Digital-to-Analog Converter) circuit and a timing diagram depictingcycles with respect to serial charge redistribution DAC, in accordancewith an embodiment;

FIG. 3 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting charge redistributionADC, in accordance with an embodiment;

FIG. 4 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting an analog pixel circuitand a pixel simplified timing diagram in accordance with an embodiment;

FIG. 5 illustrates a schematic diagram of the charge redistribution ADC106, in accordance with an embodiment;

FIG. 6 illustrates a schematic diagram of an enhanced follower circuit,in accordance with an embodiment;

FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting a Version A embodimentof a high-performance follower circuit, in accordance with anembodiment;

FIG. 8 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting a Version B embodimentof a high-performance follower circuit, in accordance with anotherembodiment;

FIG. 9 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting a Version C embodimentof a high-performance follower circuit, in accordance with yet anotherembodiment;

FIG. 10 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting a Version D embodimentof a high-performance follower circuit, in accordance with still anotherembodiment;

FIG. 11 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting a Version E embodimentof a high-performance follower circuit, in accordance with analternative embodiment;

FIG. 12 illustrates a schematic diagram of a high-performance comparatorcircuit, in accordance with an embodiment;

FIG. 13 illustrates a schematic diagram of a capacitor trimming circuit,in accordance with an embodiment;

FIG. 14 illustrates a schematic diagram of a 4-bit serial ADC circuit,in accordance with an embodiment;

FIG. 15 illustrates a timing diagram depicting the timing diagram of a4-bit serial ADC, in accordance with an embodiment;

FIG. 16 illustrates a lower power, compact 4-bit serial ADC, inaccordance with an embodiment; and

FIG. 17 illustrates a timing diagram of a 4-bit serial ADC, inaccordance with another embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The particular values and configurations discussed in these non-limitingexamples can be varied and are cited merely to illustrate one or moreembodiments and are not intended to limit the scope thereof.

Subject matter will now be described more fully herein after withreference to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof, andwhich show, by way of illustration, specific embodiments. Subject mattermay, however, be embodied in a variety of different forms and,therefore, covered or claimed subject matter is intended to be construedas not being limited to any embodiments set forth herein; embodimentsare provided merely to be illustrative. Likewise, a reasonably broadscope for claimed or covered subject matter is intended. Among otherthings, for example, subject matter may be embodied as methods, devices,components, or systems/devices. Accordingly, embodiments may, forexample, take the form of hardware, software, firmware or anycombination thereof (other than software per se). The following detaileddescription is, therefore, not intended to be interpreted in a limitingsense.

Throughout the specification and claims, terms may have nuanced meaningssuggested or implied in context beyond an explicitly stated meaning.Likewise, phrases such as “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” andvariations thereof as utilized herein do not necessarily refer to thesame embodiment and the phrase “in another embodiment” or “in anotherembodiment” and variations thereof as utilized herein may or may notnecessarily refer to a different embodiment. It is intended, forexample, that claimed subject matter include combinations of embodimentsin whole or in part.

In general, terminology may be understood, at least in part, from usagein context. For example, terms, such as “and”, “or”, or “and/or” as usedherein may include a variety of meanings that may depend, at least inpart, upon the context in which such terms are used. Typically, “or” ifused to associate a list, such as A, B, or C, is intended to mean A, B,and C, here used in the inclusive sense, as well as A, B, or C, hereused in the exclusive sense. In addition, the terms “at least one” and“one or more” as used herein, depending at least in part upon context,may be used to describe any feature, structure, or characteristic in asingular sense or may be used to describe combinations of features,structures, or characteristics in a plural sense. Similarly, terms suchas “a”, “an”, or “the”, again, may be understood to convey a singularusage or to convey a plural usage, depending at least in part uponcontext. In addition, the term “based on” may be understood as notnecessarily intended to convey an exclusive set of factors and may,instead, allow for existence of additional factors not necessarilyexpressly described, again, depending at least in part on context.Additionally, the term “step” can be utilized interchangeably with“instruction” or “operation”.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meanings as commonly understood by one of ordinary skillin the art. As used in this document, the term “comprising” means“including, but not limited to.”

One example of a pixel detector is the FLORA (Fermilab-LCLS CMOS3D-integRated detector with Autogain) device, which is a large dynamicrange and continuous, fast readout rate pixel detector conceived toexploit the high repetition rate operation at LCLS-II with focus on softX-rays. Note that the acronym LCLS refers to Linac Coherent LightSource, which is a hard X-ray free-electron laser. LCLS-II, on the otherhand, refers to a transformative tool for energy science, qualitativelychanging the way that X-ray imaging, scattering and spectroscopy can beused to study how natural and artificial systems function. LCLS-II willenable new ways to capture rare chemical events, characterizefluctuating heterogeneous complexes, and reveal quantum phenomena inmatter, using nonlinear, multidimensional and coherent X-ray techniquesthat are possible only with X-ray lasers. The LCLS-II facility willoperate in a soft X-ray range (250 eV to 1.5 keV), and will use seedingtechnologies to provide fully coherent X-rays in a uniformly spacedseries of pulses with programmable repetition rate and rapidly tunablephoton energies.

A FLORA detector can fulfill the needs of the new storage rings and itsconcept extends to soft and harder X-rays. The target for a FLORA deviceis a sensitivity to X-ray photon energies from the range from 250 eV to2 keV, allowing detection of a single photon and extending the dynamicrange to 104 photons per pixel per frame. The FLORA detector structureis planned for large area coverage in a form of tileable square, orgenerally rectangular, modules of up to a few cm per side, arranging ina structure with a central hole and high vacuum compatible. The detectormodule can be implemented as a hybridized device in which the structuralsupport function is fulfilled by a sensing layer to which readoutintegrated circuits are bonded using the high-density interconnecttechnology to yield pixelated detectors with pixels of 50×50 microns² orless.

Note that the discussion herein regarding FLORA and pixel detectors suchas the aforementioned FLORA detector should not be considered limitingfeatures of the disclosed embodiments. That is, a FLORA detector ismerely one type of detecting system or apparatus to which the disclosedembodiments may be applied. It can be appreciated that the disclosedembodiments can be applied to other types of pixel detectors and othertypes of circuits and applications. The discussion herein of a FLORAdetector is provided for exemplary and illustrative purposes only, andto illustrate one possible embodiment.

In general, a FLORA pixel must integrate and digitize a signal charge ofwide dynamic range in a very small area (e.g., approximately 35×40microns2, while the total pixel size is 50×50 microns²) at a rate in therange of 10-100 kS/s. A crucial component of the analog circuitry is a10-bit successive approximation register ADC (SAR ADC) with a 0-1.2 Vrange (full nominal supply swing of the technology used in theimplementation) with a DAC, which is based on a charge redistributiontechnique. To achieve the required specifications of this ADC in such arestrictively small area, several novel circuit blocks have beendeveloped:

Analog Section:

-   -   1. A wide dynamic range (1.2 V) unity-gain buffer with zero        input capacitance    -   2. A high-gain, wide common-mode range (1.2 V) comparator with        constant offset    -   3. A simple, method of sub-fF capacitor trimming suited for        small chip area Occupancy

An Integrated Circuit process with a wide variety of transistor types isrequired to implement the ADC. (Note that the voltages correspond to a65 nm process platform however the general concept is applicableirrespective of the technology node and such voltages and otherparameters should not be considered limiting features of the disclosedembodiments). Thin-oxide transistors can be sized at the process minimumdimensions, and operate with a supply voltage of 1.2 V. Nominal-VT,Low-VT (LVT), and High-VT (HVT) transistors are available for both NMOSand PMOS thin-ox transistors. Thick-ox transistors have larger minimumdimensions and operate with a supply voltage of up to 2.5V.

FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram depicting an analog pixel circuit100, in accordance with an embodiment. In particular, the block diagramof the analog portion of the pixel is shown in FIG. 1 . The analog pixelcircuit 100 can include three circuits or sub-circuits, including adual-range integrator 102, a CDS (Correlated Double Sampler) 104, and acharge redistribution ADC 106. The CDS 104 can include a capacitortrimming circuit 108 (i.e. labeled as “Cap Trim” in FIG. 1 ).

An input 101 (e.g., an input signal) can be provided to the dual-rangeintegrator 102, which is also subject to a reset 105 (e.g., a resetsignal). The output from the dual-range integrator 102 can be input tothe CDS 104. The CDS can be subject to a pre-sample 107 (e.g., apre-sample signal) and a post-sample 109 (e.g., a post-sample signal).The output from the CDS 104 can be provided as input to the chargeredistribution ADC 106, which in turn can provide an ADC output 110(e.g., 10 bits). The CDS can be subject to a reference voltage 111 (alsolabeled as “Vrer in FIG. 1 ) and a control 113 (e.g., a control signal).

The CDS 104 can be employed between the output of the dual-range chargeintegrator 102 and the input to the charge redistribution ADC 106 formultiple reasons. First, the CDS 104 can filter out the low frequencynoise of the dual-range charge integrator and the kTC noise from theintegrator reset 105, both of which can be significant. Second, therelatively large capacitors employed in the CDS load and the integratoroutput can limit its bandwidth, thereby limiting the high frequencynoise. Third, because the sampled signal is a voltage held on arelatively large capacitance, it can remain stable over the entiredigitization period (e.g., tens of microseconds).

The configuration of the dual-range charge integrator 102 and the CDS104 is relatively straightforward. One of the important challenges ofthe FLORA pixel, for example, is to design a linear, monotonic 10-bitADC in a very small area. Since plenty of time is available fordigitization (e.g., on the order of 10 to 100 us), an appropriate ADCarchitecture may implement many iterative serial operations in exchangefor simplicity and small size. The charge redistribution techniquediscussed herein can thus be implemented by a simple serial chargeredistribution DAC, whose output can be iteratively adjusted andcompared to the voltage to be digitized until they are essentiallyequal. Some of the main challenges in the ADC design may involvedesigning a high-performance comparator and developing a method oftrimming the small DAC capacitors to high precision.

FIG. 2 illustrates a circuit diagram depicting a serial chargeredistribution DAC 120, in accordance with an embodiment. The serialcharge redistribution DAC 120 can be used with the charge redistributionADC 106 is shown in FIG. 1 . The serial charge redistribution DAC 120shown in FIG. 2 can include a first capacitor 124 and a second capacitor128, which can be subject to the capacitor trimming circuit 108, whichcan be in some embodiments, the same capacitor trimming circuit 108shown in FIG. 1 . The first capacitor 124 is labeled C1 in FIG. 2 , andthe second capacitor 128 is labeled as C2 in FIG. 2 .

The serial charge redistribution DAC 120 can further include a switch122 that functions as a DAC reset, and a switch 125 (also labeled as“Qequal” in FIG. 2 ) located between the first capacitor 124 and thesecond capacitor 128. The serial charge redistribution DAC 120 can alsoinclude a switch 130 and a switch 132 that can be connected electricallyto the second capacitor 128 and also, when the switch 125 is closed, tothe first capacitor 124. The first capacitor 124 and the secondcapacitor 128 need to be of equal capacitance value and the switch 125,the switch 124, the switch 128, the switch 130 and/or the switch 132 canbe utilized to route a charge to the first capacitor 124 and/or thesecond capacitor 128.

The voltage on the first capacitor 124 or C1 can be the output of theserial charge redistribution DAC 120, which starts out at 0 V. A 10-bitoutput voltage can be formed by charging the second capacitor 128 or C2to either Vref or 0 V, and then connecting the first capacitor 124 andthe second capacitor 128 together to equalize (redistribute) the charge,followed by performing this procedure a number of times (e.g., 10times). The LSB (Least Significant Bit) of the DAC word can be performedfirst, and the MSB (Most Significant Bit) last. The accuracy of theserial charge redistribution DAC 120 may be limited by the precision ofcapacitor matching, the effect of the parasitic capacitances and chargeinjection of the switches, and by any loading or influence of subsequentcircuitry that is connected to the output of the serial chargeredistribution DAC 120.

Note that these voltages, capacitor sizes, matching properties, etc.correspond to a selected technology node. This technique, however, canbe applicable to other technology nodes. The choice of capacitorsdepends on the matching properties of the capacitors in a technology(e.g. MIM (metal-insulator-metal) caps). The choice of a capacitordepends on the selection offered by a particular technology, matchingproperties, size and capacitance per area ratio (i.e., fF/pm2). Theconcept given as the 10-bit ADC may be applicable for more or less thana 10-bit conversion.

The DAC capacitors used should have a very low voltage dependencecoefficient to preserve linearity, which precludes using MOScaps.MOMcaps (metal-oxide-metal) are chosen for this purpose since they arelinear, easy to implement, and have relatively high capacitance per unitarea. The extremely limited area available in the pixel, however, maylimit the practical value of these capacitors to several hundred fF.This presents a major challenge, since an accurate 10-bit DAC mayrequire capacitor matching to be better than 0.1%, which may not beachievable with such small capacitor values without trimming. Inaddition, the non-linear parasitic capacitance and charge injection ofthe switches can also cause significant errors when the capacitors arethis small. Also, the load presented by any conventional circuitryconnected to the DAC output may be significant enough to compromiseperformance.

These problems can be addressed as follows. First, only near-minimumsized thin-oxide (1.2V) transistor switches can be used, sincethick-oxide switches can introduce too much error. Since it is desirableto have the DAC range be as large as practical to maximize the ADC binsize, the DAC range can be chosen to be 0-1.2 V, which is the maximumallowable with thin-oxide switches. This choice can allow for seamlessinterfacing with the digital logic on the chip, since the logic alsoruns on a 1.2V supply. Second, a new method of trimming of capacitorscan be implemented, which allows trimming with a granularity of tens ofaF (10E-18 F). This allows the DAC capacitors such as the firstcapacitor 124 and the second capacitor 128 to be adjusted on a per-pixelbasis to match to significantly better than 0.1%.

FIG. 2 further illustrates a timing diagram 140 depicting cycles withrespect to the serial charge redistribution DAC 120. The timing diagram140 shown in FIG. 2 demonstrates example timing signals with respect toDAC Reset, CapHi, CapLo, Qequal, and Vref. Three redistribution signalsare depicted in the timing diagram as part of one serial DAC conversion.

FIG. 3 illustrates a circuit diagram depicting a charge redistributionADC 150, in accordance with an embodiment. The charge redistribution ADC150 shown in FIG. 3 can be implemented as a 10-bit ADC, which canincorporate the serial charge redistribution DAC 120 shown in FIG. 2 .The charge redistribution ADC 150 can include a high-performancecomparator 157 that includes a comparator 156 and an amplifier 158 andan amplifier 160. An input voltage 162 can be provided to the amplifier158 and a reference voltage can be provided to the amplifier 160. Theamplifier 158 and the amplifier 160 can each function as a highperformance follower. The reference voltage can offer a referencevoltage in a range of that includes 0 Volts to a voltage Vref.

The charge redistribution ADC 150 further includes a serial DAC 120 thatis also subject to a reference voltage, which can also be labeled asVref. The serial DAC 120 is also connected to ground and can receive anoutput of sequential and control logic 152, which may be implemented asa circuit or sub-circuit subject to a clock signal (“Clocks” as shown inFIG. 3 ). The output from the sequential and control logic 152 is thusinput to the serial DAC 120. The sequential and control logic 152outputs a signal which is fed as an input to a data storage register154, which in turn provides an output (“Out” as shown in FIG. 3 ) thatcan also be fed as an input to the sequential and control logic 152. Anoutput from the high-performance comparator 157 is fed as input to thedata storage register 154.

A series of 10 DAC output voltages (ranging between 0 and Vref) can becompared with the input voltage Vin. First, presenting a DAC voltage ofVref/2 and comparing it to the input can determine the MSB of the ADCconversion. The result of any given comparison determines the next DACvalue to try. After presenting the 10^(th) and final DAC voltage andobserving the result of the comparison (which is the LSB), theconversion can be complete.

At the heart of the charge redistribution ADC 150 is thehigh-performance (“HiPerf”) comparator circuit 157 that can include theamplifier 158, the amplifier 160, and the comparator 156. As discussedabove, the amplifier 158 can provide an output that is provided as inputto the comparator 156. The amplifier 160 can also provide an output thatis fed as input to the comparator 156. This high-performance comparatorcircuit 157 has several very challenging specifications, which requiresome new ideas. That is, the high-performance comparator circuit 157should preferably have a 1.2 V common mode range, and a reasonably lowand constant input offset over the entire range. The high-performancecomparator circuit 157 should also have a very high gain so that it canresolve input differences of <1 mV, and be able to render a decisionwithin a few hundred ns in all cases.

Because the input to the high-performance comparator circuit 157 can beconnected to the output of the serial charge redistribution DAC 120,which may be simply one of the two matched DAC capacitors 124 or 128,the serial charge redistribution DAC 120 should also have effectivelyzero input capacitance. This may require high-performance inputfollowers to isolate the actual comparator inputs from the othercircuitry. A “HiPerf” (high-performance) follower can be defined ashaving a 1.2 V range, a constant gain and an offset over that wholerange, and an input capacitance of (practically) zero.

In summary, the high-performance comparator circuit 157 should includehigh-performance input followers with constant gain and offset, a 1.2Vrange and a constant offset, an input capacitance equal to zero, a highgain with inputs that can resolve <1 mV, and a decision in a range thatis less than a few hundred ns (nanoseconds).

FIG. 4 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting a more detailed view ofthe analog pixel circuit 100 and further depicting a pixel simplifiedtiming diagram 161 in accordance with an embodiment. As shown in FIG. 4, the pixel simplified timing diagram 161 includes an acquire portion162 and a digitize portion 164.

The pixel simplified schematic diagram of the analog FLORA pixel designof the analog pixel circuit 100 as depicted in FIG. 5 illustratesimportant blocks, including the charge redistribution ADC 106. As areminder, similar or identical reference numerals discussed andillustrated herein refer to similar or identical parts or elements. Theanalog pixel circuit 100 shown in FIG. 4 includes the previouslydiscussed dual-range charge integrator 102, the CDS 104, and the chargeredistribution ADC 106.

The charge redistribution ADC 106 includes the previously discussedhigh-performance comparator 157, the capacitor trimming circuit 108(i.e. which is also labeled as “Cap Trim” in FIG. 4 ), and a circuitblock 115 that can include ADC logic, registers, and clock generation(“clock gen”) circuitry. Output from the circuit block 115 can includean ADC output signal (i.e., labeled as “ADC out” in FIG. 4 ) and a DACcontrol signal (i.e., labeled as “DAC control” in FIG. 4 ). The DACcontrol signal can be provided as a charge-capacitance-to-high signal(i.e., labeled as “CapHi” in FIG. 4 ) and a charge-capacitance-to-lowsignal (i.e., labeled as “CapLo” in FIG. 4 ). The charge redistributionADC 106 can further include electrical components such as a capacitor C1and a capacitor C2, a DAC reset switch (i.e., labeled as “DAC reset” inFIG. 4 ), and so on.

The dual-range charge integrator 102 can be initially reset to establishthe baseline when there is no signal. The dual-range charge integrator102 output can directly feed the Correlated Double Sampler (CDS) 104.The CDS 104 can be composed of a parallel capacitor Cp sampled with aPost-Sample switch (i.e., labeled as “Post-Sample” in FIG. 4 ), and aseries coupling capacitor Cs whose output can be initially reset toground (the bottom of the ADC range) with a Pre-Sample switch (i.e.,labeled as “Pre-Sample” in FIG. 4 ). Both the Pre-Sample switch and thePost-Sample switch can be closed during a reset period of the dual-rangecharge integrator 102. After the integrator reset is opened, anintegrator output can be allowed to settle for time t_(i) (see timet_(i) of the digitize portion of the timing diagram 161) before thePre-Sample switch is opened.

After the Pre-Sample switch is opened, the DC integrator baseline level(e.g., including charge injection, low frequency integrator noise andthe kTC noise from opening the integrator reset switch) can be stored ona series coupling capacitor Cs, effectively subtracting this offset fromthe signal presented to the subsequent circuitry. After Pre-Sample, thesignal can arrive and be integrated during time t2 as shown in theacquire portion 162 of the timing diagram 161. The change in integratoroutput (i.e., the integrated signal) can be coupled via Cs to the ADCinput (labeled as “ADC in” in FIG. 4 ). Note that a compact ADC can beimplemented standalone or in other applications without the Integratorand the CDS blocks.

Note that any capacitance on the inputs of the high-performancecomparator will compromise the ADC performance. Capacitance at thepositive input loads the series coupling capacitor Cs that drives theCDS output, and can cause attenuation of the ADC input signal.Capacitance at the negative input can add to the C1 capacitor in theserial DAC, causing a C1-C2 mismatch and compromising the accuracy ofthe ADC 106.

FIG. 5 illustrates a schematic diagram of the charge redistribution ADC106, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 5 illustrates circuitconfigurations that can be contained in the FLORA ADC. First, the designand operation of the high-performance follower will be explained. Then,the high-performance comparator 157 is discussed, which is a novelcomparator design with each of its inputs driven by a high-performancefollower such as the comparator 158 and the comparator 160. Finally, asub-fF capacitor trimming method is explained.

Designing a high-performance follower with a 0-1.2 V range is achallenging task. This section lays out steps that may be required toarrive at a final solution. Each of the intermediate steps may result ina version of a high-performance follower that can be useful in a varietyof applications. Each of these intermediate versions, however, has someperformance limitation that may preclude its use for the FLORAapplication, and only a final version may be suitable for FLORA.

A fundamental principle that can be exploited in all versions of thefollower is electronic bootstrapping, which can also be referred tosimply as bootstrapping. Electronic bootstrapping can involve causingthe voltages on all terminals (including the bulk) of a MOS transistorto move by (ideally) the same amount in response to a change in voltageon the gate (e.g., see the parasitic capacitance bootstrapping featurein FIG. 4 ). If this condition can be met, the gain of the follower willbe exactly one, and the input capacitance at the gate will be zero.Existing circuit topologies that follow this approach may use a PMOSfollower, since the bulk (Nwell) can be easily attached to the source.Then, the follower drain voltage can be forced to follow the sourcevoltage by means of another follower or combination of transistors.

FIG. 6 illustrates an example of this, which can be found in “A novelsource-drain follower for monolithic active pixel sensors”, C. Gao, et.al., NIM A 831 (2016), pp. 147-155, which is incorporated herein byreference in its entirety. FIG. 6 generally illustrates a schematicdiagram of an enhanced follower circuit 170, which can be implemented inaccordance with an embodiment. Note that the term “follower circuit” canbe utilized interchangeably herein with the term “follower” to refer tothe same circuit or same type of circuit or circuit element. Theenhanced follower circuit 170 shown in FIG. 6 can possess the desiredproperties of a high-performance follower over a certain range. Theenhanced follower circuit 170 can include a transistor 171, which canprovide a current 11 that is input to a transistor 172. The enhancedfollower circuit 170 can further include a transistor 174, which canreceive a current 12 that is output to a transistor 178. In addition,the enhanced follower circuit 170 includes a transistor 176 that issubject to a current 13, and which in turn can be connected to ground.The transistor 178 can also be connected to ground and can be subject toa voltage Vbn.

The enhanced follower circuit 170 can thus use two current sources, aPMOS (11) and an NMOS (12). The quiescent current through the followerinput transistor is (11-12), which must remain constant to maintainconstant gain and offset. Therefore, the performance quickly degradesfor inputs less than several hundred mV, since the voltage across theNMOS current source goes to zero. This follower design does not comeclose to meeting the desired dynamic range for FLORA.

Since the FLORA high-performance buffer must have a valid input range of0-1.2 V, any new design approach (or modification of this circuit) canrequire a supply voltage of greater than 1.2 V. Thin-ox transistors canbe used, but only if the maximum voltage across any two of the thin-oxtransistor's terminals never exceeds 1.2 V. Thick-ox transistors can beused without this limitation, and are able to tolerate up to 2.5 Vacross any two terminals. Note that these voltages can apply to aspecific 65 nm process, which was chosen for the FLORA project. Theprinciples, however, discussed herein can apply to different processeswith different voltage ratings. The general principle requiresmaximizing the input voltage swing to the ADC to relax the matchingrequirements of capacitors as well as minimizing the size of the DACcapacitors.

FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting a Version A embodimentof a high-performance follower circuit 180, in accordance with anembodiment. The high-performance follower circuit 180 shown in FIG. 6can include a transistor 181 connected to a transistor 182 (e.g., a 2.5V (thick-ox) transistor), which in turn can be connected to a transistor184 (e.g., a 1.2 V (thin-ox) transistor). Both the transistor 182 andthe transistor 186 can be connected to a transistor 186, which in turnis connected to ground and is subject to a voltage Vbn. Note that thetransistor 181 is subject to a voltage Vbp.

FIG. 7 depicts a modification to the enhanced follower circuit 170 shownin FIG. 6 and which can extend its range by using an NMOS followerinstead of a PMOS follower to set the drain voltage of the inputtransistor. Both thin-ox and thick-ox transistors can be used tomaximize performance while still respecting voltage ratings. Thin-oxtransistors typically have higher transconductance and better matching,so are more desirable for the input transistor. Thick-ox transistors arewell suited as current sources and for other transistors that are notdirectly in the signal path, since their drain voltage swing is notlimited. Note that the supply voltage of this buffer can be 2.5 V, butthe PMOS thin-ox input transistor never sees more than a 1.2 Vdifference across any two of its terminals.

The Version A follower circuit 180 may not perform well, however, withan input of 0 V, since because the threshold voltage of the thick-oxNMOS follower is typically somewhat larger than that of the thin-ox PMOSinput transistor, the 12 current source will have a very lowdrain-source voltage and will not function as a good current sourceunder this condition. For an input of at least a couple of hundred mV(typically) the performance is quite good, with a gain very close to one(typically −0.9995) and extremely low input capacitance (typically −0.1fF). The positive large-signal slew rate is determined by 11, and thenegative slew rate by (12-11). For equal slew rate in both directions,12 must be set to 2(11).

In the implementation shown in FIG. 7 , the NMOS follower has its bulktied to its source, which requires a process with deep N-wells, and isquite area intensive. This may be acceptable for some applications, butis a big disadvantage when the layout must be in a small pixel. If adeep N-well is not used for the NMOS follower, then much less layoutarea is used and the NMOS bulk is the chip substrate. However, thissomewhat reduces the buffer gain (typically −0.9985) and increases theinput capacitance (typically ˜0.3 fF)

A different approach may be required to design a high-performance bufferwith all the characteristics required for the FLORA pixel. The conceptbehind this new technique is shown in the Version B follower circuit 190of FIG. 8 . FIG. 8 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting a Version Bembodiment of a high-performance follower circuit 190, in accordancewith another embodiment. As shown in FIG. 8 , the high-performancefollower circuit 190 can include a transistor 192 that can beelectronically connected to a transistor 194 (i.e., labeled as “M1” inFIG. 8 ), which in turn can be electronically connected to a transistor196 (i.e., labeled as “M2” in FIG. 8 ).

The configuration shown in FIG. 8 may require the availability of bothHigh Voltage Threshold (HVT) and Low Voltage Threshold (LVT) thin-oxtransistors. M1 (HVT) buffers the input signal, so that the source of M1follows the input. M2 (LVT) causes the drain of M1 to also (very nearly)follow the input. Since the gate-source voltage of M2 is guaranteed tobe significantly lower in magnitude than that of M1, the drain-sourcevoltage of M1 is therefore held relatively constant (at the differencebetween HVT and LVT thresholds, which is typically several hundred mVand always enough to guarantee that M1 is in the saturation region).

This new concept performs quite well given its extreme simplicity andpossesses several properties. For example, the slew rate for largesignals in the positive direction can be limited by 11, but for negativesignals is much faster. Therefore, a large negative input can cause asignificant spike in the ground supply current, which may be problematicfor certain designs. For the FLORA application, this version suffersfrom a range problem: when the input is near the top of the required0-1.2 V range, the voltage across M2 (drain to source) exceeds 1.2 V.Therefore, the useable range of this follower is from zero to somewhatless than 1 V. Additionally, since the M2 drain is grounded, it does notfollow the M2 source, and therefore the M1 drain will very nearly (butnot exactly) follow the input signal. The gain is very near ideal(typically 0.9998), and the input capacitance very low (typically 0.3fF), but the performance can be slightly better if the M2 drain followsthe input.

These issues can be addressed by the modification shown in FIG. 9 . Thatis, FIG. 9 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting a Version Cembodiment of a high-performance follower circuit 200, in accordancewith another embodiment. The high-performance follower circuit 200 caninclude a transistor 202 (labeled as “M5” in FIG. 9 that iselectronically connected to a transistor 204 (labeled as “M3” in FIG. 9) whose input is electronically connected to a transistor 206 (labeledas “M1” in FIG. 9 ) and whose output is electronically connected to atransistor 208 (labeled as “M2” in FIG. 9 ) and a transistor 210(labeled as “M4” in FIG. 9 ). Note that the transistor 210 is subject toa voltage Vbn and the transistor 202 is subject to a voltage Vbp.

In general, an NMOS follower (M3) and a current source (M4) can be addedso that the drain of M2 very nearly follows the input signal. Thismodification solves the over-voltage problem, and since the drain of M2now very nearly follows the input, the buffer gain is extremely close to1 (typically 0.9998), and the input capacitance is negligible(typically<0.1 fF). Even when the input is set to zero, M4 still has atleast 100 mV drain-source voltage bias, since the magnitude of the Vgsof M1 (HVT) is bigger than that of M3, allowing operation over the fullrange of 0-1.2 V.

The positive slew rate can be determined by 11, and the negative slewrate by (12-11). This version of high-performance follower may be usefuland adequate for some applications, but still has a vulnerability whenused in a large pixel chip like FLORA. The 11 PMOS current source (M5)and 12 NMOS current source (M4) must each have their own referencetransistors, and these references are relatively far away from some ofthe pixels. Matching accuracy decreases with distance, and furthermore,the error in PMOS current matching is not necessarily correlated withthe error in NMOS matching. In addition, any IR drop on the power andground busses will also affect the value of 11 and 12 current sourcesrespectively. Since the NMOS current source M4 must operate with lowdrain-source voltage (when the input is 0 V), it must have a relativelylow gate-source voltage (unlike the PMOS current source M5), worseningthe matching accuracy of the negative current source as compared to thepositive current source. If the slew rate capability of the follower isdesired to be equal in both directions (as for FLORA), then instead ofsetting 12=2(11), 12 must be set considerably higher in order that thenegative slew rate is high enough under the worst case matching and IRdrop errors. This increases power dissipation significantly, which istypically not desirable.

FIG. 10 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting a Version D embodimentof a high-performance follower circuit 220, in accordance with anotherembodiment. The high-performance follower circuit 220 includes atransistor 222 (labeled as “M7” in FIG. 10 ) that is connected to avoltage supply (2.5 V) and is subject to a voltage Vbp. A current 11flows from the transistor 222 to a transistor 232 (labeled “M6” in FIG.10 ). That is, the transistor 222 can be electronically connected to thetransistor 232. The transistor 232 is electronically connected to atransistor 234 (labeled “M4” in FIG. 10 ).

The high-performance follower circuit 220 can include a transistor 224(labeled “M5” in FIG. 10 ) that is connected electronically to atransistor 226 (labeled “M3” in FIG. 10 ) and a transistor 228 (labeled“M1” in FIG. 10 ). The transistor 228 is in turn electronicallyconnected to a transistor 230 (labeled “M2” in FIG. 10 ). The transistor226 and the transistor 230 are also electronically connected to thetransistor 234. A current 11 flows from the transitory 223 to thetransistor 226 and the transistor 228. A current 13 flows from thetransistor 226 to the transistor 230 and the transistor 234. A current12 flows from the transistor 230 and the transistor 226 to thetransistor 234.

The slew rate matching problem of the Version C follower is addressed inthe Version D design configuration, shown in FIG. 10 . In the approachdepicted in FIG. 10 , the 12 current source can be generated from asecond positive current source of magnitude 11. As pointed out earlier,the positive current sources can be high quality current sources sincethere is plenty of positive voltage headroom, allowing the currentsources to have significant length and a relatively large gate-to-sourcevoltage. This results in the best matching and least sensitivity topower bus IR drops that can be achieved.

The added 11 current source (M7) can be used to drive an NMOS currentmirror that determines the 12 current. Since this is a local currentmirror (M4 and M6 are in close proximity), the mirror matching will bequite good and IR drop in the ground bus will have no effect on thecurrent mirror ratio. Thus, the 12 current can be more accurately setthan in the Version C design. For equal slew rate in both directions,the current mirror ratio should be set to N=2. However, thisconfiguration does incur a power dissipation penalty due to the addedreference current through M7 and M6.

The properties of Version D are summarized as follows. First, onlyidentical positive current sources may be used, requiring one positivebias current reference per chip. In a large pixel chip, the positivecurrent sources will match fairly well since adequate voltage headroomallows the PMOS length to be much larger than minimum and Vgs to be big.Second, in a large pixel chip, the negative current source can be formedfrom a local NMOS mirror in each pixel, so NMOS matching is good and themagnitude of 12 is not affected by IR drops in the ground bus. Inaddition, the configuration shown in FIG. 10 offers near-perfectcharacteristics (e.g., gain—0.9998, input capacitance<0.1 fF) and ishighly linear, with a full input range of at least 0-1.2 V. In addition,the configuration shown in FIG. 10 possesses constant ground and supplycurrents, even when slewing. There is, however, a power dissipationpenalty due to added positive current source (M7).

FIG. 11 illustrates a schematic diagram depicting a Version E embodimentof a high-performance follower circuit 240, in accordance with anotherembodiment. Note that the high-performance follower circuit 240 depictedin FIG. 11 is similar to the high-performance follower circuit 220 shownin FIG. 10 , with some subtle but important differences. For example, inthe high-performance follower circuit 240 depicted in FIG. 11 , atransistor 223 can be included (labeled “M8” in FIG. 11 ), which iselectronically connected to the transistor 222 and the transistor 232,and also the transistor 226.

The power dissipation of the Version D configuration (i.e., see FIG. 10) can be significantly reduced while maintaining slew rate with theVersion E follower circuit 240 shown in FIG. 11 . This is a finalversion of the high-performance follower, and is a design used in theFLORA chip. In this circuit, the positive slew rate can be determined by11, as usual. The negative slew rate, however, can be enhanced ondemand, allowing lower quiescent bias current. This is accomplished byconnecting the M3 drain to the M7 drain (instead of to the positivesupply) so that it takes a portion of the M7 current, and the current toM6 is reduced toll—13.

In FIG. 11 , the mirror ratio can be set to 3 (as it is in the FLORAdesign, although it could be otherwise), which forces 13 to be half of11. The negative bias current of M4 is then 1.5×11. Now, when there is alarge negative input signal, the M3 current goes to zero and allows allthe M7 current to go to the mirror. Therefore in this example, the M4current during large-signal negative slewing is 3×11, yet the totalquiescent bias current is only 2×11. This insures that even in thepresence of worst case transistor mismatch, the negative slew rate is atleast as fast as the positive slew rate.

The properties of the Version E (for FLORA) follower circuit 240 can besummarized as follows. First, only identical positive current sourcescan be used, requiring one current reference. These current sources canmatch quite well since adequate voltage headroom allows the PMOS lengthto be much larger than minimum and Vgs to be big. Additionally, thenegative current source can be formed from a local NMOS mirror in eachpixel, so NMOS matching is “good”, and the magnitude of 12 may not beaffected by IR drops in the ground bus.

The Version E high-performance follower circuit 240 also offers anenhanced negative slew rate. That is, for large negative signals, M3turns off and the negative current source increases in value to 12=3×11while slewing. Therefore, the negative slew rate may be somewhat fasterthan the positive slew rate, and even with worst case mirror mismatch,the negative slew rate may be no slower than the positive slew rate. Thehigh-performance follower circuit 240 also offers near-perfectcharacteristics (e.g., gain—0.9998, input capacitance<0.1 fF), and ishighly linear, with a full input range of at least 0-1.2 V. The groundsupply current may increase during large-signal negative slewing.

As mentioned before, the performance of the comparator is crucial inachieving the desired ADC specifications. The comparator must have aninput signal range of 0-1.2 V, a constant offset over the whole range,and virtually no input capacitance. A high-performance comparator can bederived by driving the inputs of a comparator with high-performancefollowers, as shown in FIG. 11 . Since the followers have a DC levelshift of approximately 0.6 V, the comparator itself must then have aninput range of 0.6-1.8 V, with a constant offset over that whole range.

FIG. 12 illustrates a schematic diagram of a high-performance comparatorcircuit 157, in accordance with an embodiment. The HVT-LVT concept usedin the high-performance follower can also be used to achieve theconstant offset requirement of the comparator. Since the positive railof the comparator bias is 2.5 V, there is still enough headroom for thecomparator inputs to operate at up to 1.8 V. The gates of the comparatorHVT and LVT input transistors (M10-M13) can be conveniently driven bythe followers as shown in FIG. 11 , due to the naturally similararchitectures.

To avoid overvoltage on M12 and M13, cascode transistors M14 and M15 canbe added and biased from a shifted version of the high-performancefollower output. Such cascode transistors also help to boost thecomparator gain seen at node Out1 (the first comparator output) toapproximately 1400. A set of transistor clamps (M18 and M19) limits theOut1 voltage swing, which keeps M15 and M17 always in saturation,thereby keeping the speed as high as possible, and preventing anyovervoltage on thin-ox transistors.

Since the gain of the first stage of the comparator is already quitehigh, a very simple second stage is adequate to provide enoughadditional gain and shaping to feed a digital buffer. The voltage gainfrom the input to the Out2 node is greater than 30,000. The comparatorcan therefore easily resolve input differences that are significantlyless than 1 mV. Because the transistor clamps limit the voltage swingand always keep all transistors in saturation mode, even sub-mV inputsignals are resolved within 200 ns.

One of the high-performance followers can have an additional biascurrent added to force an effective offset at the comparator inputs.When the comparator is used in an ADC, this effective comparator offset(instead of 0 V) defines the nominal “bottom” of the ADC, so that theADC can digitize a differential input of 0 even in the presence of theworst-case random mismatch of all the transistors in the signal path.

FIG. 13 illustrates a schematic diagram of the capacitor trimmingcircuit 108, in accordance with another embodiment. FIG. 13 depicts therelevant part of the FLORA ADC that can implement the new sub-fFcapacitance trimming method. The goal is to trim the value of C1 to beequal to the value of C2 (approximately 200 fF in the FLORA ADC). Thepresence of the high-performance follower is what enables thistechnique, and the capacitor trim values can be very small (down to tensof aF).

The high-performance follower has almost zero input capacitance andtherefore does not load C1. In addition, a nearly perfect replica of VC1exists at the output of the follower (with just a DC offset). Therefore,the follower output can be used to drive a bootstrapped shield on alower level of metal, which effectively cancels the parasiticcapacitance to ground that exists on the metal wiring trace between C1and the follower input. Part or all of this shield can be broken up intosections to form small trim capacitors, each of which are eitherconnected to the follower output (bootstrapped resulting in no addedcapacitance) or to ground (forming an added capacitance to ground).

The trim capacitors can be arbitrarily sized, but would typically havebinary-weighted values that are selected with a digital code (Csel 0-2in this example). The value of the largest trim capacitor should be atleast as big as the largest expected mismatch between the capacitorsthat are being trimmed (C1 and C2 in this example). This value ofcapacitance is added to C2, so that C1 is guaranteed to be smaller thanC2 with no trim capacitors connected to ground, and larger than C2 withall trim capacitors connected to ground.

The heart of an N-bit serial ADC was shown previously in FIG. 2 . Afterresetting the DAC by discharging C1, N redistribution cycles must beperformed to obtain an N-bit analog output voltage on C2. Aredistribution cycle consists of charging C2 to either a “0” or a “1”(to either ground or Vref, where Vref is the maximum analog voltage ofthe DAC output), and then closing the Qequal switch to redistribute thecharge equally on both caps. The LSB of the digital DAC input mustalways be presented first, and the MSB last.

When an N-bit serial DAC is incorporated into an N-bit ADC as shown inFIG. 2 , the ADC bits are determined one at a time. Digital logic mustperform N different DAC conversions, and the analog output level of eachof these N conversions is compared with the ADC input voltage todetermine the next ADC bit. At any given point in the ADC conversionprocess, all the ADC bits that are known at that time are used to formthe next DAC conversion voltage. An existing solution that accomplishesthis is shown as a 4-bit ADC (to serve as an example and deriving otherADC resolution from this example is straightforward) in FIG. 14 , alongwith a corresponding timing diagram in FIG. 15 .

FIG. 14 illustrates a schematic diagram of a 4-bit serial ADC circuit250, in accordance with an embodiment. As depicted in FIG. 14 , the4-bit serial ADC circuit 250 can include a comparator 256 that can beelectronically connected to an ADC code register 256, which in turn canconnect to a logic circuit 258 for parallel data transfer. The logiccircuit 258 can be subject to a parallel transfer signal (“ParallelTransfer”). The logic circuit 258 can be in turn electronicallyconnected to a DAC code register 260, which in turn can provide a serialinput signal (“SerialIn”) to a DAC redistribution sequencer 254 that inturn can provide a CapHi signal, a CapLo signal and a Qequal signal to aserial DAC 252.

FIG. 15 illustrates a timing diagram 270 depicting the timing diagram ofthe 4-bit serial ADC circuit 250, in accordance with an embodiment. Agiven DAC conversion can be initiated by presenting a “1” to the serialinput of the DAC, followed by each of the ADC bits that have beenalready determined. A 4-bit ADC conversion can be therefore performed bysequentially performing four DAC conversions and presenting those fouranalog DAC outputs to the comparator to be compared with the input. Theresult of these four comparisons can provide the final ADC code.

The MSB of the ADC can be determined first, simply by presenting a “1”to the serial input of the DAC, redistributing the charge, and comparingthe DAC output to the ADC input. This result is shifted into the ADCCode Register with CK_ADC. For the 2^(nd) DAC conversion, a paralleltransfer is done from the ADC Code Register to the DAC Code Register.The 2nd DAC conversion then again starts with a “1” to the serial inputof the DAC and a redistribution cycle. This is followed by shifting inthe ADC bit (MSB) that has already been determined (with the CK_DACsignal) and another redistribution cycle.

The result of the 2nd DAC conversion comparison gives the next ADC bitand is shifted into the ADC Code Register. After another paralleltransfer, the 31d conversion is done, again starting with a “1”,followed by the least significant ADC bit so far (MSB—1), and then theMSB. Note that each DAC conversion cycle adds another serial DAC inputbit, and takes progressively longer to determine the next ADC bit. Also,when the known ADC bits are shifted into the DAC, the least significantbit that is known is shifted in first, and the last bit to be shifted inis the ADC MSB. The straightforward circuit 250 shown in FIG. 14 shiftsADC bits to the right, then transfers them to the DAC Code Register,which shifts them left into the DAC.

The 4-bit serial ADC circuit 250 shown in FIG. 14 can be utilized as asimple and effective configuration. However, one of its disadvantagesmay be that every clocking or transfer operation can result in all theflip-flops being clocked, and potentially all the flip-flops changingstate (depending on the register states). This can result in significantpower consumption and potentially significant transient noise on thedigital power busses. In addition, for a pixel chip with an ADC in everypixel, both the ADC and DAC code registers must be implemented in eachpixel. A new configuration is proposed below which minimizes clockingoperations to reduce power consumption and allows sharing of someregisters among multiple pixels to reduce layout area and further reducepower consumption.

FIG. 16 illustrates a lower power, compact 4-bit serial ADC circuit 270,in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 17 illustrates a timing diagram280 of the 4-bit serial ADC circuit 270, in accordance with anembodiment. The lower power, compact 4-bit serial ADC circuit 270 shownin FIG. 16 includes a comparator 156 that can be electronicallyconnected to an ADC code register 256, which in turn is electronicallyconnected to a DAC conversion number register 272, which in turn iselectronically connected to a DAC input bit select register 274. The DACinput bit select register 274 in turn connects electronically to a datamultiplexer 275 (“Data Mux”) whose output is input to the DACredistribution sequencer 254 that in turn connects electronically to theserial DAC 252. Output from the serial DAC 252 can be fed as input tothe comparator 156.

FIG. 16 thus depicts a diagram of the new configuration, and FIG. 17 thecorresponding timing diagram. Again, a 4-bit ADC circuit can be depictedfor illustration purposes. This new strategy avoids any shifting ortransferring of ADC data. Therefore, the ADC Code register simplyacquires and holds data one bit at a time. When ADC bits need to bepresented to the serial DAC input, instead of shifting them, a datamultiplexer simply selects which of the ADC registers to connect to theDAC input.

The DAC Conversion Number Register starts with a “1” loaded into onlythe leftmost register, and after each DAC conversion, the “1” is shiftedto the right with CK_ADC. This register therefore implements a “walking1” that simply advances the circuit to the next DAC conversion.Realization of the “walking 1” pattern can be done as shown in FIG. 16or in other form, for example exploiting the Johnson's counter. Eachclock pulse to this register therefore results in only two flip-flopschanging state. Each output serves as the dedicated clock input to thecorresponding ADC Code Register flip-flop. Therefore, the flip-flops inthe ADC Code Register are never shifted, but each simply acquires andholds its data. A DAC Input Bit Select Register is used to control thedata multiplexer, which selects the ADC bits in the proper order forwhichever DAC conversion is taking place. This avoids having to transferthe ADC bits to a DAC control register and shift them into the DAC, asin the previously explained existing solution.

The DAC Input Bit Select Register always selects a “1” to pass to theDAC input first. Starting with the 2nd DAC conversion, and after theinitial “1” is passed to the DAC input, the LD_DACcn (Load DACconversion number) signal sets just one of the flip-flops to a “1”,depending on which DAC conversion is taking place. This “1” is thenshifted (walked) to the left with CK_DAC to multiplex the ADC bits tothe serial DAC input in the proper order.

Since both the DAC Conversion Number Register and the DAC Input BitSelect Register perform basic timing and control functions, they can beshared among a group of multiple ADCs, resulting in significant area andpower savings.

A positive logic solution is shown in the circuit diagrams. There areseveral circuit variations for the same concept. An important innovationderives from the following: implementing a low power solution byreducing the number of transitions; sharing common logic between pixels(to reduce the number of registers within a pixel); and reusing the DACconversion number register for DAC control by enabling the stored bits(using tri-state buffers and DAC input bit select register).

The disclosed embodiments describe and illustrate the use of ahigh-performance follower, which can use both high-voltage-threshold andlow-voltage-threshold input transistors connected in a specific way(along with supporting circuitry), which provides the properties ofunity gain, zero input capacitance, and input range equal to a fullswing of the nominal supply voltage. This novel approach can be used fora number of applications and devices, not just ADCs. The disclosedapproach can enable a low-area ADC, but the configuration of the ADC isa simple charge-redistribution type. What renders the disclosedcharge-redistribution ADC interesting and unique is that it uses ahigh-performance follower (or multiple high-performance followers) inseveral different ways to achieve good ADC performance in a very smallarea. That is, a small area can be achieved by using the disclosedhigh-performance follower (along with the comparator and trimming thatthe follower design enables). The principle of sharing of logic alsoenables a reduction in ADC area, and applicable in the context of thedisclosed ADC, but is also useful in a more general sense (in non ADCdevices applications).

The analog circuitry can stem from the high-performance follower(s).This follower, along with the principle of combininghigh-voltage-threshold and low-voltage-threshold input transistors inthe manner implemented in the disclosed follower, can be used toconstruct a high-performance comparator, which can be used be needed forADC applications and non-ADC applications. This disclosed comparator canalso be implemented in a number of applications, and can be constructedusing the disclosed high-performance follower(s).

Based on the foregoing, it can be appreciated that a number ofembodiments are disclosed herein. For example, in one embodiment an ADC(Analog-to-Digital Converter) circuit, can be implemented, whichincludes at least one comparator; a serial DAC (Digital-to-AnalogConverter) circuit that provides a signal to the at least onecomparator; a serial DAC redistribution sequencer that provides aplurality of signals as input to the serial DAC circuit and is subjectto a redistribution cycle and which receives as input a signal from adata multiplexer whose input connects electronically to an output of theat least one comparator; an ADC code register that provides an ADCoutput that connects electronically to the output of the at least onecomparator and the input to the data multiplexer; and shared logiccircuitry for sharing common logic between pixels, wherein the sharedlogic circuitry connects electronically to the data multiplexer and theADC code register, wherein the shared logic circuitry promotes area andpower savings for the pixel detector circuit.

In an embodiment, the shared logic circuitry can be configured toinclude a DAC conversion number register and a DAC input bit selectregister that perform timing and control functions, wherein the DACconversion number register and the DAC input bit select register areshared among a group of multiple ADCs resulting in the area and thepower savings. In another embodiment, the DAC conversion number registeris reusable for DAC control by enabling stored bits using at least onetri-state buffer and the DAC input bit select register.

In yet another embodiment, the at least one comparator can operate withan input signal range equivalent to the full swing (of nominal supplyvoltage) and a constant offset over an entire signal range with no inputcapacitance. In another embodiment, the at least one comparator caninclude a high-performance comparator derived by driving inputs of theat least one comparator with high-performance followers.

In some embodiments, the at least one comparator is electronicallyconnected to at least one high-performance follower. In still otherembodiments, the at least one comparator is electronically connected toa plurality of high-performance followers. In another embodiment, theanalog circuit section includes a capacitor trimming circuit.

In still other embodiments, the analog circuit section can be configuredto further include a dynamic range unity-gain buffer with zero inputcapacitance. In another embodiment, the analog circuit section can befurther configured to include a high-gain, wide common-mode rangecomparator with a constant offset, wherein the at least one comparatorincludes the high-gain, wide common-mode range comparator.

In another embodiment, a circuit can be implemented which can include atleast one unity-gain buffer having a zero input capacitance; acomparator having a constant offset invariant of signal and common mode,wherein the comparator is electrically connected to the at least oneunity-gain buffer; and a capacitor trimming circuit that is electricallyconnected to the comparator via the at least one unity-gain buffer.

In an embodiment the at least one unity-gain buffer can comprise ahigh-performance follower.

In an embodiment of the circuit, the comparator can comprise ahigh-gain, wide common mode range comparator with an input signal rangeequivalent to a full swing of nominal supply voltage.

In an embodiment of the circuit, the capacitor trimming circuit canfacilitate sub-fF capacitor trimming suitable for a reduced chip areaoccupancy. In another embodiment, the sub-fF capacitor trimming can befacilitated by electronic bootstrapping an electrode of a capacitor viathe at least one unity-gain buffer. In yet another embodiment, thesub-fF capacitor trimming can be facilitated by connecting an electrodeof a capacitor to a constant voltage source.

In an embodiment, a circuit can include at least one high-performancefollower that combines at least one high-voltage-threshold transistorand at least one low-voltage-threshold transistors with surroundingcircuitry to achieve a unity gain, zero input capacitance, and a wideinput signal range equal to a full swing of a nominal supply voltage.

In an embodiment, the circuit can include a high-performance comparatorthat uses the at least one high-performance follower and the at leastone high-voltage-threshold transistor and the low-voltage-thresholdtransistor to achieve a comparator with a high gain, zero inputcapacitance, wide input signal range equal to a full swing of thenominal supply voltage, and an invariant input offset over a completedynamic range.

In an embodiment, the circuit can include a capacitance trimming circuitthat uses the at least one high-performance follower and an electronicbootstrapping to achieve a sub-fF capacitance trimming.

In another embodiment, a circuit can include at least onehigh-performance follower that combines at least onehigh-voltage-threshold transistor and at least one low-voltage-thresholdtransistor with surrounding circuitry to achieve a unity gain, zeroinput capacitance, and a wide input signal range equal to a full swingof a nominal supply voltage; a high-performance comparator that uses theat least one high-performance follower and the at least onehigh-voltage-threshold transistor and the at least onelow-voltage-threshold transistor to achieve a comparator with a highgain, zero input capacitance, wide input signal range equal to a fullswing of the nominal supply voltage, and an invariant input offset overa complete dynamic range; and a capacitance trimming circuit that usesthe at least one high-performance follower and an electronicbootstrapping to achieve a sub-fF capacitance trimming.

The circuit can also include shared logic circuitry for sharing commonlogic between pixels, wherein the shared logic circuitry promotes areasavings and power savings. The capacitance trimming circuit can beelectrically connected to the high-performance comparator via the atleast one at least one high-performance follower.

In an embodiment, a circuit, can include at least one comparator; aserial DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter) circuit that provides a signalto the at least one comparator; a serial DAC redistribution sequencerthat provides a plurality of signals as input to the serial DAC circuitand is subject to a redistribution cycle and which receives as input asignal from a data multiplexer whose input connects electronically to anoutput of the at least one comparator; an ADC (Analog-to-DigitalConverter) code register that provides an ADC output that connectselectronically to the output of the at least one comparator and theinput to the data multiplexer; and shared logic circuitry for sharingcommon logic between pixels, wherein the shared logic circuitry connectselectronically to the data multiplexer and the ADC code register,wherein the shared logic circuitry promotes area and power savings.

It will be appreciated that variations of the above-disclosed and otherfeatures and functions, or alternatives thereof, may be desirablycombined into many other different systems or applications. It will alsobe appreciated that various presently unforeseen or unanticipatedalternatives, modifications, variations or improvements therein may besubsequently made by those skilled in the art which are also intended tobe encompassed by the following claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A circuit, comprising: at least one unity-gainbuffer having a zero input capacitance; a comparator having a constantoffset invariant of signal and common mode, wherein the at least oneunity-gain buffer is electrically connected to the comparator; and atrimming circuit that is electrically connected to the comparator viathe at least one unity-gain buffer.
 2. The circuit of claim 1 whereinthe at least one unity-gain buffer comprises a high-performancefollower.
 3. The circuit of claim 1 wherein the comparator comprises ahigh-gain, wide common mode range comparator with an input signal rangeequivalent to a full swing of nominal supply voltage.
 4. The circuit ofclaim 1 wherein: the trimming circuit facilitates sub-fF capacitortrimming suitable for a reduced chip area occupancy.
 5. The circuit ofclaim 4 wherein the sub-fF capacitor trimming is facilitated byelectronic bootstrapping electrode of a capacitor via the at least oneunity-gain buffer.
 6. The circuit of claim 4 wherein the sub-fFcapacitor trimming is facilitated by connecting an electrode of acapacitor to a constant voltage source.
 7. The circuit of claim 1wherein the trimming circuit has binary-weighted values.
 8. A circuit,comprising: at least one high-performance follower that combines atleast one high-voltage-threshold transistor and at least onelow-voltage-threshold transistor with surrounding circuitry to achieve aunity gain, zero input capacitance, and a wide input signal range. 9.The circuit of claim 8 further comprising: a high-performance comparatorthat uses the at least one high-performance follower and the at leastone high-voltage-threshold transistor and the at least onelow-voltage-threshold transistor to achieve a comparator with a highgain, zero input capacitance, wide input signal range equal to a fullswing of the nominal supply voltage, and an invariant input offset overa complete dynamic range.
 10. The circuit of claim 8 further comprisinga capacitance trimming circuit that uses the at least onehigh-performance follower and electronic bootstrapping to achieve asub-fF capacitance trimming.
 11. A circuit, comprising: at least onefollower comprising: at least one high-voltage-threshold transistorcombined with at least one low-voltage-threshold transistor withsurrounding circuitry to achieve a unity gain, zero input capacitance,and a wide input signal range equal to a full swing of a nominal supplyvoltage; a comparator that uses the at least one follower and the atleast one high-voltage-threshold transistor and the at least onelow-voltage-threshold transistor to provide a high gain, zero inputcapacitance, wide input signal range equal to a full swing of thenominal supply voltage, and an invariant input offset over a completedynamic range; and a capacitance trimming circuit that uses the at leastone follower and an electronic bootstrapping to achieve a sub-fFcapacitance trimming.
 12. The circuit of claim 11 comprising sharedlogic circuitry for sharing common logic between pixels, wherein theshared logic circuitry promotes area savings and power savings.
 13. Thecircuit of claim 11 wherein the capacitance trimming circuit iselectrically connected to the comparator via the at least one at leastone high-performance follower.
 14. A circuit, comprising: at least onecomparator; a serial DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter) circuit thatprovides a signal to the at least one comparator; a serial DACredistribution sequencer that provides a plurality of signals as inputto the serial DAC circuit which receives as input a signal from a datamultiplexer whose input connects electronically to an output of the atleast one comparator; an ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) code registerthat provides an ADC output that connects electronically to the outputof the at least one comparator and the input to the data multiplexer;shared logic circuitry which connects electronically to the datamultiplexer and the ADC code register.
 15. The circuit of claim 14wherein the shared logic circuitry comprises a DAC conversion numberregister and a DAC input bit select register that perform timing andcontrol functions, wherein the DAC conversion number register and theDAC input bit select register are shared among a group of multiple ADCs.16. The circuit of claim 15 wherein the DAC conversion number registeris reusable for DAC control by enabling stored bits using at least onetri-state buffer and the DAC input bit select register.
 17. The circuitof claim 14 wherein the at least one comparator is operable with aninput signal range equivalent to a full swing of nominal supply voltageand a constant offset over an entire signal range and a common mode withno input capacitance.
 18. The circuit of claim 14 wherein the at leastone comparator comprises a high-performance comparator derived bydriving inputs of the at least one comparator with high-performancefollowers.
 19. The circuit of claim 14 wherein the at least onecomparator is electronically connected to at least one high-performancefollower.
 20. The circuit of claim 14 further comprising an analogcircuit section comprising a capacitor trimming circuit.